Bilingualism is a term in common use. In fact, one hears it more and more. But do we actually know what we mean by being bilingual? Does it imply native command or just fluency in two languages? What level of fluency does bilingualism entail? The following are my reflections on the topic from the perspective of a practicing translator and interpreter.
It is often assumed, and not just by people who themselves are monolingual, that the children of immigrants who are speakers of a foreign language are bilingual. Yet, any professional linguist knows that merely growing up in a household where a language other than the lingua franca (in our case English) is spoken is insufficient for native command of that language. Indeed, this conception seems to imply that the mastery of languages other than English (perhaps languages linked to certain ethnicities) requires less education than gaining native fluency in English.
It is absurd to assume that a young immigrant who has grown up in the United States and spoken Spanish, German, Chinese, or Igbo at home while being educated in English in the U.S. school system would be able to read and write competently in the language of his or her parents. Born-and-bred fluency in the language necessarily requires many years of exposure and use from an early age onward, in addition to years of study. And yet, this leaves open the question as to who really is fully bilingual.
The lack of an accepted definition of bilingualism is not helpful to translators and interpreters. It insures that our profession will be poorly understood. Below, I lay out what skills I believe a translator or an interpreter must have, to highlight the complexity of bilingualism and its relation to the language professions.
Intimate knowledge and understanding of both the source and the target languages are a basic requisite. In the case of translations, one must grasp the exact meaning of the source text and be able to seamlessly transpose it into the target text. One must devote many years of study and practice to the source language to gain linguistic, cultural, and topic-specific competence—in addition to superb native fluency in the target language. The translator must render the meaning into the target text in fluent and idiomatic prose while maintaining complete accuracy. Besides language, writing skill, and technical knowledge, this task requires specific education (whether or not via a formal institution) and experience in translation. For example, it is not necessarily intuitive to convert nouns into verbs, but it often makes sense for an idiomatic translation.
Those who have grown up hearing and speaking a language at home in addition to English have a definite advantage as translators, but especially as interpreters. They will naturally be more apt in their understanding of colloquial speech and idiom in the two tongues, as well as their pronunciation. Such exposure starting at an early age will also give them a head start in their cultural competence. Although writing does not figure as a component of interpreting, an understanding of written thought is crucial, and not only for sight translation. The spoken word is often prepared in written language. In other words, years of study are a must.
Yet, on their own, these components do not necessarily lead to flawless work. The crucial asset that makes translation possible is the translator’s or interpreter’s mind, which is an interface between education, experience, and articulation. It is an organic processor that is constantly interacting between input and output, both preparing for and actually performing translation or interpretation. A linguist might first be exposed to a term while leisurely reading the newspaper and later find occasion to implement it on the job. But this interface begins its development with one’s first language.
When one learns to read, one improves through experience and learning over the course of a lifetime. The meanings of words and their uses crystallize over many years. For instance, the word “sentimental” has several connotations. Two are “sentimental value,” which is generally positive, and “sentimental fool,” which is more disdainful. For most people, using this word correctly requires significant exposure to it, seeing it used and reacted to in different contexts and media. There is actually quite a lot to it. Thousands of years of philosophy have not yet succeeded in conclusively defining “happiness” or “love,” not to mention “bilingualism” itself. An effective communicator, of course, will rise to this never-ending challenge.
The interaction between active use of, and passive exposure to, language is more complex when additional languages come into play. If one is to gain fluency in two languages, one must be immersed in two universes. This takes a considerable investment of time and resources, which in turn accrues to the value of the mental interface.
When translation from one language to another comes into the mix, the linguist sets out to approximate the words and concepts of one language in the other. Since the two universes have developed autonomously, it will not always be possible to find an exact equivalent. “Sentimental” is a word in English and Spanish, but that does not necessarily mean that the English “sentimental” translates into the Spanish “sentimental.” A capable and experienced translator, however, will find ingenious solutions through ongoing refinement of the mental interface.
I may not have succeeded in defining bilingualism. But I think that, if bilingualism were more widely and more seriously discussed, it would lead to a better understanding of the role of translators and interpreters. Only with this understanding can our value to society be fully appreciated.
Originally published in The Gotham Translator.
Leonard Morin 